Civil and Structural Engineering
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Definition of BIM: Building information modelling (BIM) is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. A BIM is a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its life-cycle; defined as existing from earliest conception to demolition. BIM benefits: Faster drafting without loss of cost and quality High level of customization and flexibility Optimization of schedule and cost Seamless coordination and collaboration Conflict detection and risk mitigation Easy maintenance of building life cycle Here is the nice info-graphic whic…
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Meridian Meridian is a reference direction with respect to which the direction of lines are mentioned. There are three types of meridian - True Meridian, Magnetic Meridian & Arbitrary Meridian 1 - True Meridian It is the reference direction of north pole of earth from a given station point. It is also called geographic meridian. 2 - Magnetic Meridian It is the direction of north pole indicated by magnetic needle. 3 - Arbitrary Meridian This is any assume direction to a well defined object. It may be useful for small areas. e.g A mosque is taken as reference and location of road will be mentioned with respect to this mosque. Direction of …
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Traversing It is the method of establishing horizontal controls. Traverse Traverse is a series of connected lines forming or not forming a loop. In the first case it is called closed traverse (when the loop is formed) and in the second case it called open traverse (when loop is not formed). Vertical Control That is the reference point in vertical plane, it includes series of bench marks and points of known elevations. Horizontal Control It is the series of points in the horizontal plane of known co-ordinates. Types of Traversing Traversing can be further divided into two categories depending upon the type of instrument used, …
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Angle measurement For angle measurement with theodolite vertical hair is used. Basically there are two methods horizontal angle measurement, Repetition method (For single angle) Reiteration method (For more than one angle) 1 - By Repetition method Let suppose it is desire to measure the angle A from the following figure. We will use repetition method for this purpose. Procedure Setup the theodolite at station A. Bisect the point B with vertical hair of theodolite and move telescope in clockwise and direction to bisect at point C. Note this circle reading in the book and fix this circle reading, then again bisect the point B…
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Hi, how i can define lane and vehicle in sap2000?
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1. BIM will be the backbone of future Construction Building Information Modeling is taking over the industry globally at the speed of light. In the UK, for example, the industry adoption rate has boomed from 13% in 2010 to 39% in only two years and many countries are introducing initiatives such as national BIM recommendations to push the adoption forward. It is reasonable to expect this trend to continue as the construction industry recovers from recession and as BIM continues its path towards becoming an industry requirement. Whether you are studying structural engineering, construction engineering or architecture, expect BIM to be a major factor and competitive ad…
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How to improve the basic of engineering mechanics in the study of civil engineering?
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Rock support for tunnels and underground cavern design is a demanding and very complex task. In principle, the problem can be approached from two directions: The first way is to define the relationship between geo-mechanical properties of the rock mass and the support methods used. This is mostly based on the utilization of statistical and empirical data gathered in similar conditions. The second way is to estimate the deformation characteristics of the rock structure, and then the related effect on supporting structures. This method typically requires very good rock property and rock mass property data. The most important factors affecting rock reinforcement method …
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By building up environment Civil Engineers play with nature... Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings. Why Become a Civil Engineer? 1. Civil engineers create the world around us Civil engineers are the unsung heroes of the engineering world. Yet this jack-of-all-trades discipline is an incremental part of creating everything from tall skyscrapers and complex stadiums to bridges, railways and tunnels. As a civil engineer, your work influences where people wor…
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Tunnel Sections Tunnels range in dimensions of cross-sections from those of small galleries driven by miners working with hand tools, to tunnels large enough to accommodate rail road trains, double lane of highway traffic, or to transport very large volume of water as in diversion structures in dams. A minimum size of tunnel is 9 ft high and 4 ft wide at the working face. Designed shapes or sizes of tunnels in x-section conform to a planned uses to tunnel and the some extent to the nature of the material that is anticipated will be encountered during excavation, x-sectional shapes vary from square or rectangular as for example in mining operations in strongly bed…
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A tunnel is an elongated, narrow essentially linear underground opening with a length greatly exceeding its width or height. Most tunnels are nearly or exactly horizontal but for special purposes, tunnels may be driven at angles up to 30 degree from the earth's surface. The one which is greater than 30 degree from horizontal are designed as shafts. When rocks in tunnels are highly in-competent, especially when underground water is present, tunneling becomes a very costly and hazardous operation, and excavation and containment of such rocks present a challenge that requires maximum use of highly technical skills and ingenuity. History of Tunneling There is abundan…
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Latitude and Departure In order to do start with Theodolite Traversing you should familiar with the Latitude and Departure which are discussed briefly below, OA is the line with whole circle bearing equal to θ. OC = Latitude = lCosθ OB = Departure = lSinθ By using the above formulae for Latitude and Departure with whole circle bearing, calculator will be giving aljebraic sign automatically for Latitude and Departure. For a closed Traverse ∑ of all Latitude is equal to zero and ∑ of Departure is also equal to zero. Consecutive co-ordinates When the Latitude and Departure are calculated at second point of a given line taking f…
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Fore Bearing It is the bearing of line when the first letter of line say AB is taken as origin. This is to be written as Fore Bearing (F.B). Back Bearing It is the bearing of line when second letter of line say AB is taken as origin and this is to be written as Back Bearing (B.B). Theoretical difference between Fore Bearing (F.B) and Back Bearing (B.B) should be 180°. Local Attraction If the difference between magnetic Fore Bearing and Back Bearing of a line is not exactly 180°, it may be due to presence of local attraction at one of the both stations. If this difference is exactly 180° then both stations are free from local attraction. Local at…
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1 - Tripod It should be of a rigid type capable of fixing the position of the instrument with a small lateral movement on its top when required. 2 - Foot screws These are provided for leveling the instruments. 3 - Plate level Provided for checking the level of the instrument. 4 - Horizontal clamp Provided to clamp the movement in horizontal plane. 5 - Vertical clamp For clamping movement in vertical plane. 6 - Slow motion screws These screws are used to move Theodolite either vertically or horizontally in small fractions. 7 - Telescope In a telescope vertical hair is used for horizontal angle measurement while hori…
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Leveling It is the branch of Surveying in which relative elevations of points are determined. There are following Types of Leveling 1 - Ordinary Leveling It is general purpose Leveling and unless otherwise stated all types of Leveling will come into this category. 2 - Reciprocal Leveling This is done when a site is unusually long, i.e crossing the river. Sights are taken from the two banks by placing the staff on the opposite bank almost simultaneously and finding the average of appearant difference of level. This method eliminates the error due to curvature and refraction. 3 - Precise Leveling This is a special type of Leveling using very p…
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1 - Pacing Permissible error ≤ 1 feet in 20 feet. 2 - Chain Permissible error ≤ 1 in 1000. 3 - Metallic Tape Permissible error ≤ 1 in 1000. 4 - Steel Tape This tape is made of steel alloy of very small co-efficient of thermal expansion. Permissible error ≤ 1 in 1000. 5 - Invar Tape This tape is made of very expensive steel alloy of almost negligible co-efficient of thermal expansion and is used for very precise linear measurements. Permissible error ≤ 1 in 50,000. 6 - Techometry Permissible error ≤ 1 in 50,000. 7 - Electronic Distance Meter Permissible error ≤ 1 in 100,000.
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Introduction Sometime it needs to approximate the distance between two points. One can do it without using any distance measuring instrument. But firstly you need to compute your own pace length, then you can use your pace length to approximate the actual distance. However, it is not accurate enough to use into the calculations or computations. Procedure open a chain and let it fly in straight position along the piece of ground. Walk along the chain and count the number of steps. The distance being known personal pace length will be equal to length of the chain divided by number of steps. Repeat the observation for two or three times. E…
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Vertical angle It is the angle in the vertical plane between horizontal line passing through the intersection of cross hairs and inclined line joining intersection of cross hairs and the point being observed. Circle reading in case of vertical angle During Face left vertical angle will be computed in the following manner, When angle of elevation, vertical angle = 90° - Circle reading. When angle of depression, vertical angle = Circle reading - 90°. Now, during Face right vertical angle will be computed in th following manner, When angle of elevation, vertical angle = Circle reading - 270°. When angle of depression, vertica…
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For open Traversing Following procedure is adopted in case of open traversing with the help of prismatic compass, We will setup the compass at point A, B, C and so on and note the Fore Bearing and back Bearing of lines. The length of lines or legs are measured by chain twice and mean lengths are calculated. During taking measurements in the field the method used angular measurement and linear measurement should be of same standard of accuracy, i.e either combination of Prismatic compass and Chain or combination of Theodolite and Metallic tape. For closed Traversing In case of closed Traversing while using Prismatic compass the interior …
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By deflection angle method Bearing of the first line AB is measured with the help of prismatic compass or by any other method. Setup the theodolite and point B and with horizontal circle reading bisect point A. Transit the telescope and rotate it in the direction of next station point C and note the angle, this will be θ1 R and is called deflection angle at B. Repeat this procedure for the remaining points of traverse measuring the deflection angle and writing with them letter "L" or "R". For calculation of bearing we have to simply add the deflection angles right ® to bearing of previous line to find out the bearing of next line and subtract…
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Photogrammetry Photogrammetry is the branch of surveying in which measurements are made from photographs. Merits This is a very quick and accurate method of surveying in which the ground observations are almost totally eliminated. This is very accurate method if true interpretations of photographs are made. It also provides means to develop a Contour map. Demerits This method requires fair weather conditions. The instrument is very expensive and staff should be highly qualified and experienced to make full use of this method. Types of Photogrammetry There are Two main Types of Photogrammetry - Aerial Photogrammetry and Terr…
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Surveying Surveying is a technique in by which measurements are taken on the surface of the earth and presented on the maps or stored in the digital format and vice versa. There are following types Surveying, 1 - Plane Surveying It is meant for small areas where the surface of the earth is taken to be plane surface, i.e curvature of the earth is ignored. e.g for survey inside a city. 2 - Geodetic Surveying In this curvature of the earth is taken into consideration. e.g National surveys, Basic triangulation network of a country. Geodacy is termed as actual shape of the earth. Surveying Maps There are Following Types of Surveying Maps, 1 …
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Procedure Suppose A and B are two distance points whose difference of level is to be determined as in the following figure, Place the staff over point A and set up the instrument at suitable distance towards B. The suitable distance between instrument and staff can be about 25 meters. Take a sight on the staff, that reading is called Back Sight (B.S). Now, move the staff to a new position towards B and take the reading, this will be a Fore Sight (F.S). Care should be taken to make the F.S equal to preceding B.Sm, by doing this we will eliminate the effect of curvature and refraction. Now, move the instrument to a new position and take the readi…
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Definition of Water Consumption (W.C) It is the amount of water consumed by a community in one day. It is usual to express water consumption in litres/capita/day. Average water consumption is usually 150 to 600 lpcd. Classification of W.C according to Use No. Purpose Use Quantity 1 Domestic Sanitary, Drinking, Washing, Bathing, Cooking, Gardening etc. ~ 50-250 lpcd 2 Commercial and Industrial Markets, Office buildings, Dental clinics, Private Schools, Garages, Workshops etc. ~ 12.2 cube m/1000 sq. m of floor are…
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Object This System provides us with accurate horizontal and vertical measurements and gives us the position of observer in terms of Latitude and Longitude. Advantages This system is fast replacing with conventional methods of surveying like Triangulation, Traversing etc. It no longer requires the inter-visibility of station points. The conventional techniques are still required for detail surveying. The horizontal and vertical control can easily be established with the help of GPS. Instruments This system basically requires the receiver which is setup at the point of observation. The second part of the equipment is no of satellites which …
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