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Civil and Structural Engineering

Surveying

Methods of booking and reduction of levels

1. Using rise and fall method In this method booking is done in the following manner, B.S I.S F.S Rise Fall R.L Remarks 2.570 - - - - 100.00 A 3.750 - 1.200 1.370 - 101.37 C.P - - 3.750 - 0.70 100.67 B 5.620 - 4.950 1.370 0.70 - - 1) On any page of book, the first reading is always a B.S and last reading is always a F.S. If you are not getting F.S as last reading on each page, then it means you have done mistake while booking readings. 2) From the B.S next F.S is subtracted. If the answer is pos
Environmental Engineering

Types of sewers and sewer systems

Types of sewers 1. Sanitary sewer It carries sanitary sewage i.e. wastewater from municipality including domestic and industrial wastewater. 2. Storm sewer It carries storm sewage including surface runoff and street wash. 3. Combined sewer It carries domestic, industrial and storm sewage. 4. House sewer It is the sewer conveying sewage from plumbing system of a building to common/municipal sewer. 5. Lateral sewer This sewer carries discharge from house sewers. 6. Submain sewer This sewer receive
Surveying

Electronic distance measurement (EDM) - history and modern surveying

History of electronic distance measurement In surveying distance measurements were always a challenge for surveyors specially when long distances were to be measured with high accuracy. In 1950 scientist tried to calculate the distance by using light beam to travel over unknown distance with measured time. Ordinary lights travels at a velocity of 186,000 miles per second, therefore the time taken will be very small to cover a short distance . This idea was soon dropped but the scientists succeed
Steel Structures

Advantages and disadvantages of steel construction

Advantages of steel construction 1. Reliability Steel structures are very reliable. The reasons for this reliability include consistency and uniformity in properties, better quality control because of factory manufacture, large elasticity, and ductility. If different specimens of some type of steel are tested in the laboratory for yield stress, ultimate strengths and elongations, the variation is much lesser than other materials like concrete and wood. Further, because of truly homogeneous and e

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